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Preface to the Second English Edition
Preface to the First English Edition
Preface to the First German Edition
Contents
Chapter 1. Primary Inorganic Materials
1.1 Water
1.1.1 Economic Importance
1.1.2 Production of Potable Water
1.1.2.1 Break-Point Chlorination and Ozonization
1.1.2.2 Flocculation and Sedimentation
1.1.2.3 Filtration
1.1.2.4 Removal of Dissolved Inorganic Impurities
1.1.2.5 Activated Charcoal Treatment
1.1.2.6 Safety Chlorination
1.1.2.7 Production of Soft or Deionized Water
1.1.3 Production of Freshwater from Seawater and Brackish Water
1.1.3.1 Production by Multistage Flash Evaporation
1.1.3.2 Production using Reverse Osmosis
References for Chapter 1.1: Water
1.2 Hydrogen
1.2.1 Economic Importance
1.2.2 Hydrogen Manufacture
1.2.2.1 Petrochemical Processes and Coal Gasification
1.2.2.2 Electrolysis of Water
1.2.2.3 Other Manufacturing Processes for Hydrogen
1.2.2.4 Production of Hydrogen as a Byproduct
1.2.3 Hydrogen Applications
References for Chapter 1.2: Hydrogen
1.3 Hydrogen Peroxide and Inorganic Peroxo Compounds
1.3.1 Economic Importance
1.3.1.1 Hydrogen Peroxide
1.3.1.2 Sodium Perborate and Sodium Carbonate Perhydrate
1.3.1.3 Alkali Peroxodisulfates and Sodium Peroxide
1.3.2 Production
1.3.2.1 Hydrogen Peroxide
1.3.2.2 Sodium Perborate
1.3.2.3 Sodium Carbonate Perhydrate (Sodium Percarbonate)
1.3.2.4 Alkali Peroxodisulfate
1.3.2.5 Sodium Peroxide
1.3.3 Applications
1.3.3.1 Hydrogen Peroxide, Sodium Perborate and Sodium Carbonate Perhydrate
1.3.3.2 Alkali Peroxodisulfates and Sodium Peroxide
References for Chapter 1.3: Hydrogen Peroxide and Inorganic Peroxo Compounds
1.4 Nitrogen and Nitrogen Compounds
1.4.1 Ammonia
1.4.1.1 Economic Importance
1.4.1.2 Synthetic Ammonia Manufacture
1.4.1.2.1 General Information
1.4.1.2.2 Ammonia Synthesis Catalysts
1.4.1.2.3 Synthesis Gas Production
1.4.1.2.4 Conversion of Synthesis Gas to Ammonia
1.4.1.2.5 Integrated Ammonia Synthesis Plants
1.4.1.3 Ammonia Applications
1.4.2 Hydrazine
1.4.2.1 Economic Importance
1.4.2.2 Manufacture of Hydrazine
1.4.2.2.1 Raschig Process
1.4.2.2.2 Urea Process
1.4.2.2.3 Bayer Process
1.4.2.2.4 H2O2 Process
1.4.2.3 Applications of Hydrazine
References for Chapter 1.4.2: Hydrazine
1.4.3 Hydroxylamine
1.4.3.1 Economic Importance and Applications
1.4.3.2 Manufacture
1.4.3.2.1 Raschig Process
1.4.3.2.2 Nitrogen(II) Oxide Reduction Process
1.4.3.2.3 Nitrate Reduction Process (DSM/HPO-Stamicarbon)
References for Chapter 1.4.3: Hydroxylamine
1.4.4 Nitric Acid
1.4.4.1 Economic Importance
1.4.4.2 Manufacture
1.4.4.2.1 Fundamentals of Nitric Acid Manufacture
1.4.4.2.2 Plant Types
1.4.4.2.3 Process Description
1.4.4.2.4 Manufacture of Highly Concentrated Nitric Acid
1.4.4.2.5 Tail Gases from Nitric Acid Manufacture
1.4.4.3 Nitric Acid Applications
References for Chapter 1.4.4: Nitric Acid
1.5 Phosphorus and its Compounds
1.5.1 Phosphorus and Inorganic Phosphorus Compounds
1.5.1.1 Raw Materials
1.5.1.2 Products
1.5.1.2.1 Phosphoric Acid
1.5.1.2.2 Phosphoric Acid Salts
1.5.1.2.3 Phosphorus
1.5.1.2.4 Products Manufactures from Phosphorus
References for Chapter 1.5.1: Phosphorus and Inorganic Phosphorus Compounds
1.5.2 Organophosphorus Compounds
1.5.2.1 Neutral Phosphoric Acid Esters
1.5.2.2 Phosphoric Ester Acids
1.5.2.3 Dithiophosphoric Ester Acids
1.5.2.4 Neutral Esters of Thio- and Dithio-Phosphoric Acids
1.5.2.5 Neutral Di- and Triesters of Phosphorous Acid
1.5.2.6 Phosphonic Acids
References for Chapter 1.5.2: Organophosphorus Compounds
1.6 Sulfur and Sulfur Compounds
1.6.1 Sulfur
1.6.1.1 Occurrence
1.6.1.2 Economic Importance
1.6.1.2.1 Sulfur from Elemental Sulfur Deposits
1.6.1.2.2 Sulfur from Hydrogen Sulfide and Sulfur Dioxide
1.6.1.2.3 Sulfur from Pyrites
1.6.1.3 Economic Importance
1.6.1.4 Applications
1.6.2 Sulfuric Acid
1.6.2.1 Economic Importance
1.6.2.2 Starting Materials for Sulfuric Acid Manufacture
1.6.2.2.1 Sulfuric Acid from Sulfur Dioxide
1.6.2.2.2 Sulfuric Acid from Waste Sulfuric Acid and Metal Sulfates
1.6.2.3 Applications of Sulfuric Acid
1.6.3 100% Sulfur Dioxide
1.6.4 100% Sulfur Trioxide
1.6.5 Disulfur Dichloride
1.6.6 Sulfur Dichloride
1.6.7 Thionyl chloride
1.6.8 Sulfuryl Chloride
1.6.9 Chlorosulfonic Acid
1.6.10 Fluorosulfonic Acid
1.6.11 Sulfurous Acid Salts
1.6.12 Sodium Thiosulfate, Ammonium Thiosulfate
1.6.13 Sodium Dithionite and Sodium Hydroxymethanesulfinate
1.6.14 Hydrogen Sulfide
1.6.15 Sodium Sulfide
1.6.16 Sodium Hydrogen Sulfide
1.6.17 Carbon Disulfide
References for Chapter 1.6: Sulfur and Sulfur Compounds
1.7 Halogens and Halogen Compounds
1.7.1 Fluorine and Fluorine Compounds
1.7.1.1 Fluorspar
1.7.1.1.1 Fluorspar Extraction
1.7.1.1.2 Qualities and Utilization of Fluorspar
1.7.1.1.3 Fluorapatite
1.7.1.2 Fluorine and Inorganic Fluorides
1.7.1.2.1 Fluorine
1.7.1.2.2 Hydrogen Fluoride
1.7.1.2.3 Aluminum Fluoride
1.7.1.2.4 Sodium Aluminum Hexafluoride (Cryolite)
1.7.1.2.5 Alkali Fluorides
1.7.1.2.6 Hexafluorosilicates
1.7.1.2.7 Uranium Hexafluoride
1.7.1.2.8 Boron Trifluoride and Tetrafluoroboric Acid
1.7.1.2.9 Sulfur Hexafluoride
1.7.1.3 Organofluoro Compounds by Electrochemical Fluorination
References for Chapter 1.7.1: Halogens and Halogen Compounds
1.7.2 Chloralkali Electrolysis, Chlorine and Sodium Hydroxide
1.7.2.1 Economic Importance
1.7.2.2 Starting Materials
1.7.2.3 Manufacturing Processes
1.7.2.3.1 Mercury Process
1.7.2.3.2 Diaphragm Process
1.7.2.3.3 Membrane process
1.7.2.3.4 Evaluation of Mercury, Diaphragm and Membrane Processes
1.7.2.4 Applications of Chlorine and Sodium Hydroxide
1.7.2.4.1 Chlorine
1.7.2.4.2 Sodium Hydroxide
References for Chapter 1.7.2: Chloralkali-Electrolysis
1.7.3 Hydrochloric Acid – Hydrogen Chloride
1.7.3.1 Manufacture of Hydrogen Chloride
1.7.3.2 Economic Importance of Hydrogen Chloride and Hydrochloric Acid
1.7.3.3 Electrolysis of Hydrochloric Acid
1.7.3.4 Non-Electrolytic Processes for the Manufacture of Chlorine from Hydrogen Chloride
References for Chapter 1.7.3: Hydrochloric Acid – Hydrogen Chloride
1.7.4 Chlorine–Oxygen Compounds
1.7.4.1 Economic Importance
1.7.4.2 Manufacture of Chlorine-Oxygen Compounds
1.7.4.2.1 Hypochlorite
1.7.4.2.2 Chlorites
1.7.4.2.3 Chlorates
1.7.4.2.4 Perchlorates and Perchloric Acid
1.7.4.2.5 Chlorine Dioxide
1.7.4.3 Applications of Chlorine–Oxygen Compounds
References for Chapter 1.7.4: Chlorine–Oxygen Compounds
1.7.5 Bromine and Bromine Compounds
1.7.5.1 Natural Deposits and Economic Importance
1.7.5.2 Manufacture of Bromine and Bromine Compounds
1.7.5.2.1 Bromine
1.7.5.2.2 Hydrogen Bromide
1.7.5.2.3 Alkali Bromides, Calcium Bromide, Zinc Bromide
1.7.5.2.4 Alkali Bromates
1.7.5.3 Applications for Bromine and Bromine Compounds
References for Chapter 1.7.5: Bromine and Bromine Compounds
1.7.6 Iodine and Iodine Compounds
1.7.6.1 Economic Importance
1.7.6.2 Manufacture of Iodine and Iodine Compounds
1.7.6.2.1 Iodine
1.7.6.2.2 Hydrogen Iodide
1.7.6.2.3 Alkali Iodides
1.7.6.2.4 Alkali Iodates
1.7.6.3 Applications of Iodine and lodine Compounds
References for Chapter 1.7.6: Iodine and Iodine Compounds
Chapter 2. Mineral Fertilizers
2.1 Phosphorus-Containing Fertilizers
2.1.1 Economic Importance
2.1.1.1 General Information
2.1.1.2 Importance of Superphosphate
2.1.1.3 Importance of Triple Superphosphate
2.1.1.4 Importance of Ammonium Phosphates
2.1.1.5 Importance of Nitrophosphates
2.1.1.6 Importance and Manufacture of Thermal (Sinter, Melt) and Basic Slag (Thomas) Phosphates
2.1.2 Manufacture of Phosphorus-Containing Fertilizers
2.1.2.1 Superphosphate
2.1.2.2 Triple Superphosphate
2.1.2.3 Ammonium Phosphates
2.1.2.4 Nitrophosphates
2.2 Nitrogen-Containing Fertilizers
2.2.1 Economic Importance
2.2.1.1 General Information
2.2.1.2 Importance of Ammonium Sulfate
2.2.1.3 Importance of Ammonium Nitrate
2.2.1.4 Importance of Urea
2.2.2 Manufacture of Nitrogen-Containing Fertilizers
2.2.2.1 Ammonium Sulfate
2.2.2.2 Ammonium Nitrate
2.2.2.3 Urea
2.3 Potassium-Containing Fertilizers
2.3.1 Occurrence of Potassium Salts
2.3.2 Economic Importance of Potassium-Containing Fertilizers
2.3.3 Manufacture of Potassium-Containing Fertilizers
2.3.3.1 Potassium Chloride
2.3.3.2 Potassium Sulfate
2.3.3.3 Potassium Nitrate
References for Chapter 2: Mineral Fertilizers
Chapter 3. Metals and their Compounds
3.1 Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals and their Compounds
3.1.1 Alkali Metals and their Compounds
3.1.1.1 General Information
3.1.1.2 Lithium and its Compounds
3.1.1.2.1 Natural Deposits and Economic Importance
3.1.1.2.2 Metallic Lithium
3.1.1.2.3 Lithium Compounds
3.1.1.3 Sodium and its Compounds
3.1.1.3.1 General Information
3.1.1.3.2 Metallic Sodium
3.1.1.3.3 Sodium Carbonate
3.1.1.3.4 Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate
3.1.1.3.5 Sodium Sulfate
3.1.1.3.6 Sodium Hydrogen Sulfate
3.1.1.3.7 Sodium Borates
3.1.1.4 Potassium and its Compounds
3.1.1.4.1 General Information
3.1.1.4.2 Metallic Potassium
3.1.1.4.3 Potassium Hydroxide
3.1.1.4.4 Potassium Carbonate
References for Chapter 3.1.1: Alkali Metals and their Compounds
3.1.2 Alkaline Earth Metals and their Compounds
3.1.2.1 General Information
3.1.2.2 Beryllium and its Compounds
3.1.2.3 Magnesium and its Compounds
3.1.2.3.1 Natural Deposits
3.1.2.3.2 Metallic Magnesium
3.1.2.3.3 Magnesium Carbonate
3.1.2.3.4 Magnesium Oxide
3.1.2.3.5 Magnesium Chloride
3.1.2.3.6 Magnesium Sulfate
3.1.2.4 Calcium and its Compounds
3.1.2.4.1 Natural Deposits
3.1.2.4.2 Metallic Calcium
3.1.2.4.3 Calcium Carbonate
3.1.2.4.4 Calcium Oxide and Calcium Hydroxide
3.1.2.4.5 Calcium Chloride
3.1.2.4.6 Calcium Carbide
3.1.2.5 Strontium and its Compounds
3.1.2.6 Barium and its Compounds
3.1.2.6.1 Natural Deposits and Economic Importance
3.1.2.6.2 Barium Carbonate
3.1.2.6.3 Barium Sulfide
3.1.2.6.4 Barium Sulfate
References for Chapter 3.1.2: Alkaline Earth Metals and their Compounds
3.2 Aluminum and its Compounds
3.2.1 General Information
3.2.2 Natural Deposits
3.2.3 Metallic Aluminum
3.2.3.1 Economic Importance
3.2.3.2 Manufacture
3.2.3.3 Applications
3.2.4 Aluminum Oxide and Aluminum Hydroxide
3.2.4.1 Economic Importance
3.2.4.2 Manufacture
3.2.4.3 Applications
3.2.5 Aluminum Sulfate
3.2.5.1 Economic Importance
3.2.5.2 Manufacture
3.2.5.3 Applications
3.2.6 Aluminum Chloride
3.2.6.1 Economic Importance
3.2.6.2 Manufacture
3.2.6.3 Applications
3.2.7 Sodium Aluminate
References for Chapter 3.2: Aluminum and its Compounds
3.3 Chromium Compounds and Chromium
3.3.1 Chromium Compounds
3.3.1.1 Economic Importance
3.3.1.2 Raw Material: Chromite
3.3.1.3 Manufacture of Chromium Compounds
3.3.1.3.1 Chromite Digestion to Alkali Chromates
3.3.1.3.2 Alkali Dichromates
3.3.1.3.3 Chromium(VI) Oxide (“Chromic Acid”)
3.3.1.3.4 Chromium(III) Oxide
3.3.1.3.5 Basic Chromium(III) Salts (Chrome Tanning Agents)
3.3.1.4 Applications for Chromium Compounds
3.3.2 Metallic Chromium
3.3.2.1 Economic Importance
3.3.2.2 Manufacture of Chromium Metal
3.3.2.2.1 Chemical Reduction
3.3.2.2.2 Electrochemical Reduction of Chrome Alum
3.3.2.2.3 Electrochemical Reduction of Chromium(VI) Oxide (“Chromic acid”)
References for Chapter 3.3: Chromium Compounds and Chromium
3.4 Silicon and its Inorganic Compounds
3.4.1 Elemental Silicon
3.4.1.1 General Information and Economic Importance
3.4.1.2 Manufacture
3.4.1.2.1 Ferrosilicon and Metallurgical Grade Silicon
3.4.1.2.2 Electronic Grade Silicon (Semiconductor Silicon)
3.4.1.3 Silicon Applications
3.4.2 Inorganic Silicon Compounds
References for Chapter 3.4: Silicon and its Inorganic Compounds
3.5 Manganese Compounds and Manganese
3.5.1 Manganese Compounds
3.5.1.1 Economic Importance
3.5.1.2 Raw Materials
3.5.1.3 Manufacture of Manganese Compounds
3.5.1.3.1 Manganese(II) Compounds
3.5.1.3.2 Manganese(II,III) Oxide (Mn3O4) and Manganese(III) Oxide (Mn2O3)
3.5.1.3.3 Manganese(IV) Oxide
3.5.1.3.4 Potassium Permanganate
3.5.1.4 Applications of Manganese Compounds
3.5.2 Manganese – Electrochemical Manufacture, Importance and Applications
References for Chapter 3.5: Manganese Compounds and Manganese
Chapter 4. Organo-Silicon Compounds
4.1 Industrially Important Organo-Silicon Compounds, Nomenclature
4.2 Industrially Important Silanes
4.2.1 Organohalosilanes
4.2.2 Industrially Important Silicon-functional Organo-Silanes
4.2.2.1 Organoalkoxysilanes
4.2.2.2 Acyloxysilanes
4.2.2.3 Oximino- and Aminoxy-Silanes
4.2.2.4 Amidosilanes, Silazanes
4.2.2.5 Organohydrogensilanes
4.2.3 Organofunctional Silanes
4.2.3.1 Alkenylsilanes
4.2.3.2 Halo-organosilanes
4.2.3.3 Organoaminosilanes
4.2.3.4 Organomercaptosilanes, Organosulfidosilanes
4.2.3.5 Other Organofunctional Silanes
References for Chapter 4.1 and 4.2: Organo-Silicon Compounds
4.3 Silicones
4.3.1 Structure and Properties, Nomenclature
4.3.2 Economic Importance
4.3.3 Linear and Cyclic Polyorganosiloxanes
4.3.3.1 Manufacture
4.3.3.2 Hydrolysis
4.3.3.3 Methanolysis
4.3.3.4 Cyclization
4.3.3.5 Polymerization
4.3.3.6 Polycondensation
4.3.3.7 Industrial Realization of Polymerization
4.3.4 Manufacture of Branched Polysiloxanes
4.4 Industrial Silicone Products
4.4.1 Silicone Oils
4.4.2 Products Manufactured from Silicone Oils
4.4.3 Silicone Rubbers
4.4.3.1 Room Temperature Vulcanizable Single Component Silicone Rubbers
4.4.3.2 Two Component Room Temperature Vulcanizable Silicone Rubbers
4.4.3.3 Hot Vulcanizable Peroxide Crosslinkable Silicone Rubbers
4.4.3.4 Hot Vulcanizable Addition Crosslinkable Silicone Rubbers
4.4.3.5 Properties of Silicone Rubber
4.4.4 Silicone Resins
4.4.5 Silicone Copolymers, Block Copolymers and Graft Copolymers
References for Chapters 4.3 and 4.4: Silicones
Chapter 5. Inorganic Solids
5.1 Silicate Products
5.1.1 Glass
5.1.1.1 Economic Importance
5.1.1.2 Structure
5.1.1.3 Glass Composition
5.1.1.4 Glass Manufacture
5.1.1.4.1 Glass Raw Materials
5.1.1.4.2 Melting Process
5.1.1.4.3 Melting Furnaces
5.1.1.5 Forming
5.1.1.6 Glass Properties and Applications
References for Chapter 5.1.1: Glass
5.1.2 Alkali Silicates
5.1.2.1 General and Economic Importance
5.1.2.2 Manufacture of Alkali Silicates
5.1.2.3 Applications
References for Chapter 5.1.2: Alkali Silicates
5.1.3 Zeolites
5.1.3.1 Economic Importance
5.1.3.2 Zeolite Types
5.1.3.3 Natural Zeolites
5.1.3.4 Manufacture of Synthetic Zeolites
5.1.3.4.1 From Natural Raw Materials
5.1.3.4.2 From Synthetic Raw Materials
5.1.3.4.3 Modification of Synthetic Zeolites by Ion Exchange
5.1.3.5 Forming of Zeolites
5.1.3.6 Dehydration of Zeolites
5.1.3.7 Applications for Zeolites
5.1.3.7.1 As Ion Exchangers
5.1.3.7.2 As an Adsorption Agent
5.1.3.7.3 For Separation Processes
5.1.3.7.4 As Catalysts
5.1.3.7.5 Miscellaneous Applications
References for Chapter 5.1.3: Zeolites
5.2 Inorganic Fibers
5.2.1 Introduction
5.2.1.1 Definitions, Manufacture and Processing
5.2.1.2 Economic Importance
5.2.1.3 Properties
5.2.1.4 Classification and Applications
5.2.1.5 Physiological Aspects
5.2.2 Asbestos Fibers
5.2.2.1 General and Economic Importance
5.2.2.2 Occurrence and Extraction
5.2.2.3 Applications of Asbestos Fibers
5.2.3 Textile Glass Fibers
5.2.3.1 General and Economic Iniportance
5.2.3.2 Manufacture
5.2.3.3 Applications
5.2.4 Optical Fibers
5.2.5 Mineral Fiber Insulating Materials
5.2.5.1 General Information and Economic Importance
5.2.5.2 Manufacture
5.2.5.3 Applications
5.2.6 Carbon Fibers
5.2.6.1 General Information and Economic Importance
5.2.6.2 Manufacture and Applications
5.2.7 Metal Fibers
5.2.7.1 Steel and Tungsten Fibers
5.2.7.2 Boron Fibers
5.2.8 Ceramic Reinforcing Fibers
5.2.8.1 General information and Economic Importance
5.2.8.2 Oxide Fibers
5.2.8.3 Non-oxide Fibers
5.2.8.4 Whiskers
References for Section 5.2: Inorganic Fibers
5.3 Construction Materials
5.3.1 General Introduction
5.3.2 Lime
5.3.2.1 Economic Importance
5.3.2.2 Raw Materials
5.3.2.3 Quicklime
5.3.2.4 Slaked Lime
5.3.2.4.1 Wet Slaking of Quicklime
5.3.2.4.2 Dry Slaking of Quicklime
5.3.2.4.3 Lime Hydrate from Calcium Carbide
5.3.2.5 Steam-Hardened Construction Materials
5.3.2.6 Applications of Lime
5.3.3 Cement
5.3.3.1 Economic Importance
5.3.3.2 Composition of Cements
5.3.3.3 Portland Cement
5.3.3.3.1 Raw Materials
5.3.3.3.2 Composition of Portland Cement Clinkers
5.3.3.3.3 Manufacture of Portland Cement
5.3.3.3.4 Applications of Portland Cement
5.3.3.4 Slag Cement
5.3.3.5 Pozzolan Cements
5.3.3.6 Alumina Cement
5.3.3.7 Asbestos Cement
5.3.3.8 Miscellaneous Cement Types
5.3.3.9 Processes in the Solidification of Cement
5.3.4 Gypsum
5.3.4.1 Economic Importance
5.3.4.2 Modifications of Calcium Sulfate
5.3.4.3 Natural Gypsum
5.3.4.4 Natural Anhydrite
5.3.4.5 Fluoroanhydrite
5.3.4.6 Byproduct Gypsum
5.3.4.6.1 Byproduct Gypsum from the Manufacture and Purification of Organic Acids
5.3.4.6.2 Byproduct Gypsum from Flue Gas Desulfurization
5.3.4.6.3 Phosphogypsum
5.3.4.7 Processes in the Setting of Plaster
5.3.5 Coarse Ceramic Products for the Construction Industry
5.3.6 Expanded Products
5.3.6.1 General Information
5.3.6.2 Expanded Products from Clays and Shales
5.3.6.2.1 Raw Materials
5.3.6.2.2 Gas-forming Reactions in the Manufacture of Expanded Products
5.3.6.2.3 Manufacture of Expanded Products
5.3.6.3 Expanded Products from Glasses (Foam Glass)
5.3.6.4 Applications of Expanded Products
References for Chapter 5.3: Construction Materials
5.4 Enamel
5.4.1 General Information
5.4.2 Classification of Enamels
5.4.3 Enamel Frit Manufacture
5.4.3.1 Raw Materials
5.4.3.2 Smelting of Frits
5.4.4 Enameling
5.4.4.1 Production of Coatable Systems
5.4.4.2 Coating Processes
5.4.4.2.1 Wet Application Processes
5.4.4.2.2 Dry Application Processes
5.4.4.3 Stoving of Enamels
5.4.5 Applications of Enamel
References for Chapter 5.4: Enamel
5.5 Ceramics
5.5.1 General Information
5.5.2 Classification of Ceramic Products
5.5.3 General Process Steps in the Manufacture of Ceramics
5.5.4 Clay Ceramic Products
5.5.4.1 Composition and Raw Materials
5.5.4.2 Extraction and Treatment of Raw Kaolin
5.5.4.3 Manufacture of Clay Ceramic Batches
5.5.4.4 Forming Processes
5.5.4.4.1 Casting Processes
5.5.4.4.2 Plastic Forming
5.5.4.4.3 Forming by Powder Pressing
5.5.4.5 Drying Processes
5.5.4.6 Firing of Ceramics
5.5.4.6.1 Physical-Chemical Processes
5.5.4.6.2 Firing Conditions
5.5.4.6.3 Glazes
5.5.4.7 Properties and Applications of Clay Ceramic Products
5.5.4.7.1 Fine Earthenware
5.5.4.7.2 Stoneware
5.5.4.7.3 Porcelain
5.5.4.7.4 Rapidly Fired Porcelain
5.5.4.8 Economic Importance of Clay Ceramic Products
5.5.5 Specialty Ceramic Products
5.5.5.1 Oxide Ceramics
5.5.5.1.1 General Information
5.5.5.1.2 Aluminum Oxide
5.5.5.1.3 Zirconium Oxide
5.5.5.1.4 Beryllium Oxide
5.5.5.1.5 Uranium Oxide and Thorium Oxide
5.5.5.1.6 Other Oxide Ceramics
5.5.5.2 Electro- and Magneto-Ceramics
5.5.5.2.1 Titanates
5.5.5.2.2 Ferrites
5.5.5.3 Refractory Ceramics
5.5.5.3.1 Definition and Classification
5.5.5.3.2 Alumina-Rich Products
5.5.5.3.3 Fireclay Products
5.5.5.3.4 Silicate Products
5.5.5.3.5 Basic Products
5.5.5.3.6 Specialty Refractory Products
5.5.5.3.7 Economic Importance
5.5.5.4 Nonoxide Ceramics
5.5.5.4.1 Economic Importance
5.5.5.4.2 Manufacturing Processes for Silicon Carbide
5.5.5.4.3 Refractory Silicon Carbide Products
5.5.5.4.4 Fine Ceramic Silicon Carbide Products
5.5.5.4.5 Fine Silicon Nitride Ceramic Products
5.5.5.4.6 Manufacture and Properties of Boron Carbide
5.5.5.4.7 Manufacture and Properties of Boron Nitride
5.5.5.4.8 Manufacture and Properties of Aluminum Nitride
References for Chapter 5.5: Ceramics
5.6 Metallic Hard Materials
5.6.1 General Information
5.6.2 General Manufacturing Processes and Properties of Metal Carbides
5.6.3 Carbides of the Subgroup of the IVth Group
5.6.3.1 Titanium Carbide
5.6.3.2 Zirconium Carbide and Hafnium Carbide
5.6.4 Carbides of the Subgroup of the Vth Group
5.6.4.1 Vanadium Carbide
5.6.4.2 Niobium Carbide and Tantalum Carbide
5.6.5 Carbides of the Subgroup of the VIth Group
5.6.5.1 Chromium Carbide
5.6.5.2 Molybdenum Carbide
5.6.5.3 Tungsten Carbide
5.6.5.4 Cemented Carbides Based on Tungsten Carbide
5.6.6 Thorium Carbide and Uranium Carbide
5.6.7 Metal Nitrides
5.6.8 Metal Borides
5.6.9 Metal Silicides
References for Chapter 5.6: Metallic Hard Materials
5.7 Carbon Modifications
5.7.1 Introduction
5.7.2 Diamond
5.7.2.1 Economic Importance
5.7.2.2 Mining of Natural Diamonds
5.7.2.3 Manufacture of Synthetic Diamonds
5.7.2.4 Properties and Applications
5.7.3 Natural Graphite
5.7.3.1 Economic Importance
5.7.3.2 Natural Deposits and Mining
5.7.3.3 Properties and Applications
5.7.4 Large Scale Production of Synthetic Carbon and Synthetic Graphite
5.7.4.1 Economic Importance
5.7.4.2 General Information about Manufacture
5.7.4.3 Manufacture of Synthetic Carbon
5.7.4.3.1 Raw Materials
5.7.4.3.2 Processing
5.7.4.3.3 Densification and Forming
5.7.4.3.4 Carbonization
5.7.4.4 Graphitization of Synthetic Carbon
5.7.4.4.1 General Information
5.7.4.4.2 Acheson Process
5.7.4.4.3 Castner Process
5.7.4.4.4 Other Graphitization Processes
5.7.4.4.5 Purification Graphitization
5.7.4.5 Impregnation and Processing of Carbon and Graphite Articles
5.7.4.6 Properties and Applications
5.7.5 Special Types of Carbon and Graphite
5.7.5.1 Pyrolytic Carbon and Pyrolytic Graphite
5.7.5.2 Glassy Carbon and Foamed Carbon
5.7.5.3 Graphite Foils and Membranes
5.7.6 Carbon Black
5.7.6.1 Economic Importance
5.7.6.2 Manufacture
5.7.6.2.1 General Information
5.7.6.2.2 Pyrolysis Processes in the Presence of Oxygen
5.7.6.2.3 Pyrolysis Processes in the Absence of Oxygen
5.7.6.2.4 Posttreatment
5.7.6.3 Properties and Applications
5.7.7 Activated Carbon
5.7.7.1 Economic Importance
5.7.7.2 Manufacture
5.7.7.2.1 General Information
5.7.7.2.2 Activated Carbon by “Chemical Activation”
5.7.7.2.3 Activated Carbon by “Gas Activation”
5.7.7.3 Reactivation and Regeneration of Used Activated Carbon
5.7.7.4 Applications of Activated Carbon
References for Chapter 5.7: Carbon Modifications
5.8 Fillers
5.8.1 General Information
5.8.2 Economic Importance
5.8.3 Natural Fillers
5.8.3.1 Silicon-Based Fillers
5.8.3.2 Other Natural Fillers
5.8.3.3 Beneficiation of Natural Fillers
5.8.4 Synthetic Fillers
5.8.4.1 Silicas and Silicates
5.8.4.1.1 Pyrogenic Silicas
5.8.4.1.2 Wet Chemically Manufactured Silicas and Silicates
5.8.4.1.3 Posttreatment of Silicas
5.8.4.1.4 Glasses
5.8.4.1.5 Cristobalite
5.8.4.2 Aluminum Hydroxide
5.8.4.3 Carbonates
5.8.4.4 Sulfates
5.8.4.5 Other Synthetic Fillers
5.8.5 Properties and Applications
References for Chapter 5.8: Fillers
5.9 Inorganic Pigments
5.9.1 General Information and Economic Importance
5.9.2 White Pigments
5.9.2.1 General Information
5.9.2.2 Titanium Dioxide Pigments
5.9.2.2.1 Economic Importance
5.9.2.2.2 Raw Materials for TiO2 Pigments
5.9.2.2.3 Manufacturing Processes for TiO2 Pigments
5.9.2.2.4 Applications for TiO2 Pigments
5.9.2.3 Lithopone and Zinc Sulfide Pigments
5.9.2.4 Zinc Oxide White Pigments
5.9.2.4.1 Manufacture
5.9.2.4.2 Applications
5.9.3 Colored Pigments
5.9.3.1 Iron Oxide Pigments
5.9.3.1.1 Natural Iron Oxide Pigments
5.9.3.1.2 Synthetic Iron Oxide Pigments
5.9.3.2 Chromium(III) Oxide Pigments
5.9.3.2.1 Manufacture
5.9.3.2.2 Properties and Applications of Chromium(III) Oxide
5.9.3.3 Chromate and Molybdate Pigments
5.9.3.4 Mixed-Metal Oxide Pigments and Ceramic Colorants
5.9.3.5 Cadmium Pigments
5.9.3.6 Cyanide Iron Blue Pigments
5.9.3.7 Ultramarine Pigments
5.9.4 Corrosion Protection Pigments
5.9.5 Luster Pigments
5.9.5.1 Metal Effect Pigments
5.9.5.2 Nacreous Pigments
5.9.5.3 Interference Pigments
5.9.6 Luminescent Pigments
5.9.7 Magnetic Pigments
5.9.7.1 General Information and Properties
5.9.7.2 Manufacture of Magnetic Pigments
References for Chapter 5.9: Inorganic Pigments
Chapter 6. Nuclear Fuel Cycle
6.1 Economic Importance of Nuclear Energy
6.2 General Information about the Nuclear Fuel Cycle
6.3 Availability of Uranium
6.4 Nuclear Reactor Types
6.4.1 General Information
6.4.2 Light-water Reactors
6.4.2.1 Boiling Water Reactors
6.4.2.2 Pressurized Water Reactors
6.4.3 Graphite-Moderated Reactors
6.4.3.1 Gas-Cooled
6.4.3.2 Light-Water Cooled
6.4.4 Heavy-Water Reactors
6.4.5 Fast Breeder Reactors
6.5 Nuclear Fuel Production
6.5.1 Production of Uranium Concentrates (“Yellow Cake”)
6.5.1.1 Uranium from Uranium Ores
6.5.1.1.1 Leaching Processes
6.5.1.1.2 Separation of Uranium from the Leaching Solutions
6.5.1.1.3 Manufacture of Marketable Uranium Compounds (“Yellow Cake”)
6.5.1.2 Uranium from Phosphate Ores and Wet Phosphoric Acid
6.5.1.3 Uranium from Seawater
6.5.2 Conversion of Uranium Concentrates to Uranium Hexafluoride
6.5.2.1 General Information
6.5.2.2 Wet Process for Uranium(VI) Fluoride Manufacture
6.5.2.3 Dry Process for Uranium(VI) Fluoride Manufacture
6.5.3 235 U-Enrichment
6.5.4 Reconversion of Uranium(VI) Fluoride into Nuclear Fuel
6.5.4.1 Into Uranium(IV) Oxide
6.5.4.1.1 General Information
6.5.4.1.2 Uranium(IV) Oxide by Wet Processes
6.5.4.1.3 Uranium(IV) Oxide by the Dry (IDR) Process
6.5.4.1.4 Manufacture of Uranium(IV) Oxide Pellets
6.5.4.2 Other Uranium Nuclear Fuels
6.5.5 Fuel Element Manufacture
6.6 Disposal of Waste from Nuclear Power Stations
6.6.1 General Information
6.6.2 Stages in Nuclear Waste Disposal
6.6.2.1 Interim Storage of Spent Fuel Elements
6.6.2.2 Reprocessing of Spent Fuel Elements
6.6.2.3 Further Processing of Uranium and Plutonium Solutions
6.6.2.4 Treatment of Radioactive Waste
6.6.2.5 Permanent Storage of Radioactive Waste
References for Chapter 6: Nuclear Fuel Cycle
Company Abbreviations Index
Subject Index